Drunk Driving Essay Example for Free

Drunk Driving Essay Drunk driving is a primary cause of highway traffic accidents causing deaths and injuries with enormous monetary costs to society. The drunk driving was first recognized as a policy problem in the literature in 1904, approximately 5 years after the first highway traffic fatality in the United States (Voas and Lacey). In 1982, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration started keeping statistics of alcohol related crashes through its Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) (Stewart and Fell). In 1982, there were 26,173 alcohol related fatalities, which constituted 60% of all highway fatalities. In 2002, about 17,419 or roughly 41% of about 42,815 highway fatalities were estimated to be alcohol related which indicates a 19% change since 1982 (Stewart and Fell). Overall, alcohol related traffic fatalities have reduced by about 33% over the last two decades. Policies implemented to curb drunk driving in the last two decades seem to have an impact on alcohol related fatalities. FARS data shows a 62% decrease (1. 64 to . 61) in alcohol related fatality rate since 1982 (Stewart and Fell). The general decline in the alcohol related fatalities for the general population is believed to be due to a combination of deterrent based laws, increased alcohol awareness and decrease in alcohol consumption, increased publicity about prevention, and general car safety measures (Stewart and Fell). Starting 1980s, drunk driving has been conceptualized as a criminal justice issue. With the effect of Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) and some other citizen activist groups, the issue has become a public policy problem in which drunk drivers are defined as sinful killers who drink and drive irresponsibly and claim lives of innocent victims. These efforts, according to Ross, created a dominant paradigm which focuses on the blameworthy driver. Thus, framing the issue as of a sin and drunk drivers as deviants has dominated the policymaking process and socially constructed the drunk drivers as a target group with negative connotations in public mind (Meier). Policymakers responded the demands by legislating stricter deterrent based measures to punish those criminal drunk drivers and deter drunk driving to save lives (Ross). Therefore, it is important to examine how drunk driving emerged as a policy problem and how deterrent based laws are introduced and accepted as a solution to the problem. This paper examines also the effects of MADD on legislation of drunk driving laws and effects of those laws on alcohol related fatalities. Background The struggle against drunk driving as a traffic safety problem began in late 1960s. Before 1960s, the federal governments influence on states drunk driving policies was minimal. The national character and seriousness of traffic safety problems prompted Congress to enact the Highway Safety Act and the Motor Vehicle and Traffic Safety Act, in 1966. In 1967, the Secretary of Transportation officially promulgated the first federal drunk driving standards in the National Uniform Standards for State Highway Safety Programs. One of the requirements of this program was for each state to utilize chemical tests for determining blood alcohol levels (BAC) and to enact BAC limits of no greater than . 10 % (Evans et al. ). If an individual is found to be driving with a BAC over a certain threshold they would be arrested for drunk driving. Those standards came with the threat of reducing highway funds for noncompliance. Although some states viewed the 1967 standards and the threats of reducing highway funds as interfering with their sovereign function, they complied with the new standards to participate in highway construction projects. By 1981 all states had adopted the specific standard of . 10 BAC or a lower level. In 1982, the Presidential Commission on Drunk Driving was created, and the Alcohol Traffic Safety Act of 1982 established a three-year program to provide highway grants for states that adopted certain anti-drunk driving measures (Evans et al. ). In 1983, the Presidential Commission on Drunk Driving recommended that states enact a uniform drinking age of twenty-one years. This approach was ineffective: only four states had done so by 1984. In response, Congress passed legislation requiring highway funding reductions for any state with a drinking age under twenty-one in 1984. That strategy was effective as the states soon began to establish twenty-one-year age limits. By 1986, all but eight states had adopted the twenty-one-year age limits. By 1989, all states had complied with this federal limit. Congress, by promising grants or threatening to withhold funding (carrot and stick from of coercive federalism), has taken an active role in formulating drunk driving policies and in encouraging the states to adopt them (Evans et al. ). On October 23, 2000 President Clinton signed Department of Transportation and Related Agencies Appropriations Act, 2001 that established the first-ever national drunk driving standard at . 08 blood alcohol content (BAC). According to this legislation, states that do not adopt . 08 BAC laws by 2004 would have 2% of highway construction funds withheld, with the penalty increasing to 8% by 2007. States adopting the standard by 2007 would be reimbursed for any lost funds. As of February 2004, 46 states plus the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico have adopted the national . 08 BAC standard. The federal BAC limit was the last, but not the least measure established to curb drunk driving. It was, indeed, the culmination of efforts targeting drunk driving which dates back to early 1980s (MADD). Although a variety of preventative policies including education campaigns, rehabilitation, and control of alcohol sales have been employed to reduce drunk driving, more emphasis has been placed on the use of punitive policy tools such as license revocation, increased fines, and mandatory jail time. Policies designed to change undesired behavior frequently frame drunk driving behavior as sinful or deviant, which suggests that drunk driving may constitute a morality policy. Indeed, drunk drivers are often depicted in the media and policy debates as irresponsible killer drunks. The politics around the issue of drunk driving as a morality policy may explain why punitive tools rather than preventive policies have been increasingly used in this policy area (Meier). Anti-Drunk Driving Policy Controversies Policies pertaining to alcohol have been regulated by local, state and the federal governments over the last century, including the prohibition at the turn of the twentieth century. At different times alcohol has been prohibited, permitted to operate without government control, regulated through licensing, or controlled by monopolies. This policy area is largely controlled by states through a wide range of policies regulating both the sale of alcohol and penalties for alcohol abuse. Although prohibition on drunk driving is a regulatory policy, it has a separate purpose. As Meier points out, rather than restricting access to alcohol, drunk driving policies are intended to punish individuals who abuse alcohol by drinking and driving (687). Over the last two decades states have adopted a variety of punitive policies to prevent drunk driving and its consequences. Since drunk driving is framed as sinful behavior, no one will stand up and support drunk driving. Advocates of drunk driving policies push for stricter measures to protect innocent victims and in such an environment, rational politicians will perceive that the demand for restrictive policies will be greater than it actually is and, thus, compete for more extreme policies because they always see there is a great support for being tougher on sin (Meier). These policies will be carried out through strict law enforcement by agencies, which will be awarded by the number of arrests made. Therefore, law enforcement agencies will also favor more extreme policies because such policies will create an environment that supports more resources for them (Meier). Furthermore, arresting killer drunks and saving innocent lives will increase their popularity in the eyes of public. In the absence of organized opposition, therefore, drunk driving policies shaped with the support of the public, politicians, and the bureaucracy-lead to adoption of coercive tools, which increases the cost of sinful behavior (Ross). As with most public policy issues, this one, too, has many sides. Just as anti-drunk driving movement supporters form alliances for specific efforts, adversaries also work independently and sometimes together depending on the current situation and how their alliances reflect common concerns. Organizations and individuals who appear to oppose the efforts of the anti-drunk driving movement are, in some cases, protecting a different interest or issue, such as business interests and, by extension, the economy (Baum). Despite the strength of the morality policy framework to predict what type of policy tools would be adopted in this policy domain, legislation of the federal . 08 BAC standard departs from this framework on -at least- one major point: there was an organized opposition to the legislation. Opponents of the national . 08 BAC limit consisted of interest groups representing alcohol and hospitality industries and a few non-profit groups defending motorists rights. Meier contends that highly salient morality policies permit little role for expertise and the lack of opposition results in avoidance of information that challenges the dominant position. Therefore, morality politics lead to adoption of poorly designed and rarely effective policies. In the case of . 08 BAC legislation, as with many other anti drunk driving policies, however, existence of such an opposition heated the debate around the effectiveness of that standard to prevent drunk driving. Studies evaluating the effectiveness of . 08 BAC limit and level of impairment at different levels of BAC were often cited by both sides of the policy (Meier 689-90). Opponents of the national . 08 BAC limit, however, differed in their solutions rather than in their conception of the issue. Both sides of the drunk driving debate agreed on the problem, but they disagreed on the solutions, which is closely related to the definition of the problem. Opponents and proponents of the legislation defined the problems in similar ways. For example, both sides distinguished good people who drink socially from a small minority of alcohol abusers, blameworthy deviants, who drink and drive irresponsibly. The alcohol and restaurant lobbyists could not and did not deny the existence of drunk driving problem. Furthermore, they accepted an obligation to contribute to the reduction of the problem (Baum). However, they defended that . 08 BAC limit would not affect those abusers but would punish the responsible social drinkers, which in turn negatively would affect alcohol sales. They argued that most fatal accidents involving BAC levels below . 10 were alcohol related, not alcohol caused. In almost all alcohol caused fatal accidents, drivers have had an average BAC level of . 17. Therefore, lowering BAC limit to . 08 would not prevent drunk driving. Instead, some other measures such as strict administrative license suspension, and frequent sobriety checks by law enforcement should be administered. Proponents of the . 08 BAC legislation, on the other hand, argued that everyones safe driving skills are dangerously impaired at this level, and nearly one-fourth of traffic fatalities caused by drunk drivers with a BAC level of . 10 or less (Meier 691-92). Anti-Drunk Driving Movement and MADD According to Reinarman, the anti-drunk driving movement did not spring from a rise in the prevalence of drunk driving or in accidents related to it, but from the fact that the injustices (or negative externalities) attributed to drunk driving have never been treated seriously by legislators and courts. Indeed, before 1980s drunk driving had been seen merely a traffic offense. The morality policy focus of the Reagan administration created the suitable climate in which the claims of MADD affected the public and legislators (Reinarman). MADD was founded as a non-profit victims rights organization concerned with advocating for and counseling victims and bereaved relatives, and monitoring courtrooms. Although many members of MADD are victims or bereaved victims of drunk drivers, general community activists (non-victim) have also been active in many chapters. A study on a national sample of 125 MADD chapters indicated that victimization alone does not cause activism (Weed). Moreover, victim and non-victim activists share similar social backgrounds and already participate in other voluntary associations, which reveals that MADD tends to be run by activists who have been victimized rather than victims who have become activists (Ross). Despite its inception as a victims rights organization, MADD has been blamed for becoming a neo-prohibitionist movement (Hanson). The goal of the organization, Hanson claims, is no longer preventing alcohol related accidents but preventing drinking. Moreover, MADD members are accused of seeking vengeance through harsh penalties either than rehabilitation and prevention. Reinarman points out that MADDs goals include the demand for justice or vengeance on the group that took lives of friends and children, which warrants harsh punishment whether deterrence is achieved. He also contends that in the case of drunk driving, the purpose of jail is generally social revenge, not accident prevention. Advocates of MADD, on the other hand, have always pointed out the public education programs, victim assistance, and legislative activism as their agenda items. Regardless of the objectives mentioned above, MADD has managed to make drunk driving a major public problem. Its approach to the problem assumes that the victim in an alcohol related accident is innocent; the drunk drivers behavior is willful and it is a crime which should be dealt in the criminal justice system; and harsh punishment is effective in reducing drunk driving by the threat of swift, certain, and severe penalties. By working against the alcohol industrys promotion of drinking in general, MADD has focused on the negative externalities created by the drunk driver -framing the issue as a deviant behavior (Ross). This strategy allowed the movement to gain support even from the alcohol industry itself. Starting from being a small group of women to a nationwide organization with over 600 chapters across 50 states, MADD has become the most influential citizen group fighting drunk driving. The organizations 2003-2004 annual report shows that its assets reached more than $28 million and revenues more than $53 million (MADD). As with other anti-drunk driving laws, MADD was the main actor behind the federal . 08 BAC legislation. With support of other non-profit organizations, MADD members brought the issue to the public attention. They lobbied key members of Congress, organized media campaigns, participated in press events and other activities, and published fact sheets and statistical information demonstrating the significance of the policy initiative (Ross). They not only contacted the president and obtained his support, but also reached both Democrat and Republican members of the Congress gaining bipartisan support, necessary for passage of the legislation. MADD saw the fight for . 08 BAC as a fight for public safety. Karolyn Nunnallee, the president of the organization, once said, The danger imposed by a drunk driver does not stop at State lines. Neither should the standards that define drunk driving (190). Conclusion Like many other public policy issues, drunk driving can also be defined and addressed in several ways with every definition proposing a different solution. Contrary to the dominant paradigm, for example, drunk driving can be considered as a public health issue. Then the solution would be rehabilitation of offenders rather than imposing sanctions on them. However, efforts of MADD and other grassroots organizations to define the problem in criminal justice terms by describing the problem as of a sin committed by irresponsible killer drunks against innocent victims succeed over other possible definitions of the problem as well as the solutions attached to them (Meier). Their success of the definition of the problem yielded social construction of the target group as deviants with negative connotations and weak political power who deserve sanctions either than rehabilitation. Although proponents of drunk driving policies have been successful in defining the issue in terms of sin that no one could stand for it, opponents were also successful to some extent in addressing the issue by questioning the effectiveness of deterrent based policies. They were able to frame the issue in such a manner that opposition became legitimate. Meier contends that when the opponents are able to change the social construction of the debate from sin to some other dimension, the redistributive nature of the policy becomes open and acknowledged (694). At this point, we can hold that the drunk driving issue was transformed from the politics of sin to the politics of redistribution when alcohol and hospitality industries considered that the stricter laws -as in the case of federal . 08 BAC legislation- would threat alcohol sales. They were not successful, however, in changing issue entirely from being a policy of sin and could not defend drunk driving, but emphasized the potential inefficiency of measures to curb drunk driving. Moreover, they could not sustain holding that position over time and once again the dominant definition of the problem prevailed yielding more punitive tools to deter drunk driving. MADD has been acknowledged as the driving force that transformed drunk driving into a public problem which warrants governmental action. Moreover, MADD as a citizen advocacy group is an important factor in shaping policies in American states. The results provided evidence for the effects of MADD not only on states adoption of anti-drunk driving laws but also adoption of traffic safety measures in general. Works Cited Baum, Scott. Drink Driving as a Social Problem: Comparing the Attitudes and Knowledge of Drink Driving Offenders and the General Community. Accident Analysis and Prevention. 32 (2000): 689-694. Evans, William N. , Doreen Neville, and John D. Graham. General Deterrence of Drunk Drivers: Evaluation of Recent American Policies. Risk Analysis. 11 (1991): 279-289. Hanson, David J. Mothers Against Drunk Driving: A Crash Course in MADD, 2002 http://www. alcoholfacts. org/CrashCourseOnMADD. html MADD. Saving Lives: Mothers Against Drunk Driving Annual Report 2003-2004, 2004. Meier, Kenneth J. (1994). The Politics of Sin: Drugs, Alcohol, and Public Policy. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. Meier, Kenneth J. Drugs, Sex, Rock, and Roll: A Theory of Morality Politics. Policy Studies Journal. 27 (4) (1999): 681-695. Nunnallee, Karolyn. Pro Con: Should Congress Pass . 08 Blood-Alcohol Concentration (BAC) Drunk Driving Standard? Congressional Digest. 11 (6-7) (1998): 178-191. Reinarman, Craig. The Social Construction of an Alcohol Problem: The Case of Mothers Against Drunk Drivers and Social Control in 1980s. Theory and Society. 17 (1988): 91-120. Ross, H. Laurence. Confronting Drunk Driving: Social Policy for Saving Lives. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992 Stewart, Kathryn and James Fell. Trends in Impaired Driving in the United States: Complacency or Backsliding? In Daniel R. Mayhew and Claude Dussault eds. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Alcohol, Drugs and Traffic Safety, Montreal, Canada, August 4-9, 2002. Voas, Robert B. and John H. Lacey. Drunk Driving Enforcement, Adjudication, and Sanctions in the United States. in R. Jean Wilson and Robert E. Mann eds. Drinking and Driving: Advances in Research and Prevention. New York, NY: The Guildford Press, 1990 Weed, Frank J. The Victim-Activist Role in the Anti-Drunk Driving Movement. The Sociological Quarterly. 31 (3) (1990): 459-473.

Euthanasia Essay -- Death Research Papers

Euthanasia Euthanasia, as defined by the Encarta Encyclopedia, is the â€Å"practice of mercifully ending a person’s life in order to release the person from incurable disease, intolerable suffering, or undignified death† (Encarta, 2004). Euthanasia is a Greek word, which means â€Å"good death.† As humans, we understand death is something we cannot avoid but having some control over death is empowering and reassuring to us. If someone is suffering from a terminal illness, intolerable pain, or in a long-term coma, euthanasia is an acceptable option for someone to end his or her life. With the consent of their doctor(s) these people should be able to have the law on their side supporting their decisions. Euthanasia began in 1906 when Ohio drafted the first bill supporting the acceptance of euthanasia. Unfortunately, the bill did not succeed. About thirty years later, Reverend Charles Potter founded the Euthanasia Society of America in New York (Humphry, 1999). Since its beginnings, euthanasia or mercy killing as it is also called, has experienced many highs and lows, legal wins and set backs. Most noteworthy is the 1976 Natural Death Act passed by California with 10 states quickly following in California’s footsteps (Humphry, 1999). In 1980, euthanasia made a small gain against its largest opposition, the Catholic Church (Humphry, 1999). Pope John Paul II refuses accepting any â€Å"right to die† ideologies although he permits greater use of painkillers and the right to refuse any means to extend life unnaturally. Today, most states have some laws that allow patients to make informed decisions about how they wish to die. Almost every state allows one to have a living will. This simply states that if one is surviving via ... ...e that is breathing for them, or allowing someone to be in coma with no brain waves and simply existing is counterproductive to technology. We need to have a human say in when technology is simply enabling us to exist as machines. In those times, we need the right to say it is time to die. Euthanasia is at best a complicated subject. However, we a free people in a free society should be permitted one of the biggest freedoms of human life- deciding when to die. Doctors like Dr. Kevorkian should be hailed as heroes for human life not labeled doctors of death. Although this decision should never be made quickly or without counseling and much thought; if someone is terminally ill and in much pain he or she should be able to decide when her or she will die. It should be our last right as a person of this world to decide when it is time to move into the next one. Euthanasia Essay -- Death Research Papers Euthanasia Euthanasia, as defined by the Encarta Encyclopedia, is the â€Å"practice of mercifully ending a person’s life in order to release the person from incurable disease, intolerable suffering, or undignified death† (Encarta, 2004). Euthanasia is a Greek word, which means â€Å"good death.† As humans, we understand death is something we cannot avoid but having some control over death is empowering and reassuring to us. If someone is suffering from a terminal illness, intolerable pain, or in a long-term coma, euthanasia is an acceptable option for someone to end his or her life. With the consent of their doctor(s) these people should be able to have the law on their side supporting their decisions. Euthanasia began in 1906 when Ohio drafted the first bill supporting the acceptance of euthanasia. Unfortunately, the bill did not succeed. About thirty years later, Reverend Charles Potter founded the Euthanasia Society of America in New York (Humphry, 1999). Since its beginnings, euthanasia or mercy killing as it is also called, has experienced many highs and lows, legal wins and set backs. Most noteworthy is the 1976 Natural Death Act passed by California with 10 states quickly following in California’s footsteps (Humphry, 1999). In 1980, euthanasia made a small gain against its largest opposition, the Catholic Church (Humphry, 1999). Pope John Paul II refuses accepting any â€Å"right to die† ideologies although he permits greater use of painkillers and the right to refuse any means to extend life unnaturally. Today, most states have some laws that allow patients to make informed decisions about how they wish to die. Almost every state allows one to have a living will. This simply states that if one is surviving via ... ...e that is breathing for them, or allowing someone to be in coma with no brain waves and simply existing is counterproductive to technology. We need to have a human say in when technology is simply enabling us to exist as machines. In those times, we need the right to say it is time to die. Euthanasia is at best a complicated subject. However, we a free people in a free society should be permitted one of the biggest freedoms of human life- deciding when to die. Doctors like Dr. Kevorkian should be hailed as heroes for human life not labeled doctors of death. Although this decision should never be made quickly or without counseling and much thought; if someone is terminally ill and in much pain he or she should be able to decide when her or she will die. It should be our last right as a person of this world to decide when it is time to move into the next one.

E-Manufacturing: A Technology Review

Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. E Manufacturing a Technology Review Dr. H. K. Shivanand, Nanjundaradhya N. V, Prabhakar Kammar, Divya shree S, Keshavamurthy YC. Abstract: With a rapid change in technology especially in the manufacturing sector, customers are demanding more value, less risk, and better integration of products, hence there is a need to change the manufacturing strategies, which can result in improved performance thereby meeting the customer demands. This paper critically reviews a new area to overcome the above problem called â€Å"E – Manufacturing† which can integrate customers, products and suppliers with the help of Internet Technology. The concept of E – Manufacturing, its development, tools and potential benefits are discussed along with application examples on Automobiles. Areas like E – Maintenance, E – Diagnostics, E – Business related to E – Manufacturing is also discussed. By adopting such a manufacturing technique zero downtime, reduced product error, customer satisfaction, quick manufacturing changes can be accomplished. In addition the concept of E-Manufacturing applied to the manufacture of gears is also discussed there by providing better understanding of this process. like ERP, MES, SCADA, and even newer acronyms like Enterprise Asset Management (EAM) and Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) are communicating with each other, and sharing data through internet connections. II. EVOLUTION OF E MANUFACTURING For decades, the dominant manufacturing model was based on principles of mass production [2]. Standardized parts and processes made economies of scale achievable, but limited design flexibility and customization. The outsourcing and lean manufacturing movements of the 1980s and 1990s drove the emergence of a new paradigm, termed the Quality Management era. Manufacturing companies, particularly large Original Equipment Manufacturers’ (OEM) outsourcing shifts critical elements of the design and production process onto a manufacturer’s supply chain. The lean manufacturing movement places a premium on time and inventory reduction. Combining the attributes of the Quality era suggests a very different business model for manufacturing – enterprise integration or E-Manufacturing. In the E-Manufacturing era, companies will be able to exchange information of all types with their suppliers at the speed of light. III. E MANUFACTURING E-Manufacturing can be most cogently and generally described as the application of the Internet to Manufacturing [3], further E-Manufacturing is becoming popular with the increased use of the internet. Due the widespread availability of the Internet; large-scale distributed projects in manufacturing are becoming popular. It is the methodology and framework for collaborative Virtual Manufacturing. The ability to exchange information and automate manufacturing processes forms the building blocks of the virtual manufacturing companies of the near future. It covers all aspects of manufacturing – sales, marketing, customer service, new product development, procurement, supplier relationships and logistics manufacturing strategy development and so on. As a result, it is now so much easier to allow certain people gain access to certain sections of the system, according to whatever criteria they like; maintenance people need certain parts of the data, but not others; operators would be able to access a limited number of devices; managers would be allowed to monitor, but not change anything, etc. New technologies such as the Extensible Markup Language (XML) are now making it easier to share data between different application programs, and to set up computers to take actions based on criteria †¹ for instance, to order supplies when inventories reach a critical low point. The E-Manufacturing WCE 2008 Index Terms— E – Manufacturing, E – Maintenance, E – Diagnostics, Automobile, Gears. I. INTRODUCTION F manufacturing companies what matters more is that how efficiently their company can compete globally with others as an organization followed by meeting the day to day requirements of the customer and exchange of hassle free information while not focusing only on sales of the company [1]. Today’s customers provide top priority for money, better quality and less risk. In order to cater to the needs of the customer, manufacturing companies have adopted a new technique called E Manufacturing. It is concerned with the use of the Internet and E-Business technologies in manufacturing industries wherein a network can be established between the customer, the manufacturer and the product. The internet offers a frictionless path for exchange of information. The concepts of E-Maintenance, E-Business, E Diagnostics and ECare have led to the formation of an E-Factory which can produce quality products at remarkable speeds. In short, the customer is just a click away from a business deal. Within manufacturing concerns, the various enterprise-wide systems OR today’s Manuscript received October 11, 2007. H. K. Shivanand is with the University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering , Bangalore, Karnataka, INDIA 560001 phone: 918022961887 e-mail: Shivanand. [email  protected] gmail. com Prabhakar Kammar, is working at MVJ College of Engineering, Bangalore Nanjundaradhya N. V is working at RV College of Engineering, Bangalore Divya shree S is working at BEL, Bangalore. Keshavamurthy YC, ME (Manufacturing Sc &Engg), UVCE, Bangalore. ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. technique also affects products as well since it is possible to use Internet technologies to add new product functions and to provide new services. The Internet is being used even at the shop floor level. For instance, computer numerical control devices (CNC’s) can be connected via intranets or the Internet to ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), production planning, or maintenance systems. As such, the E-Manufacturing project aims to develop an appropriate framework for a common platform to enable distributed planning and control in manufacturing for quicker, easier, secure and cost-effective collaborations. The developed system will allow dispersed engineering team members to work together productively, as if they were under one roof. This transformation of the enterprise coincides with the increasing content of information contained in products and processes. This new production enterprise is information-rich. The major functions and objectives of e-manufacturing are: (a) provide a transparent, seamless and automated information exchange process to enable an only handle information once (OHIO) environment; (b) improve the utilization of plant floor assets using a holistic approach combining the tools of predictive maintenance techniques; (c) links entire SCM operation and asset optimization; and (d) deliver customer services utilizing the latest predictive intelligence methods and Tether-free technologies [4] Fig 2: Before Implementing E Manufacturing Fig 3: After Implementing E Manufacturing IV. E MANUFACTURING TOOLS Implementation of the E-Manufacturing tools results in cost saving, regardless of the company size. E-Manufacturing tools enable connectivity among the various modules of the manufacturing process. Areas where the E-Manufacturing tools need to be developed are listed below [5 – 9]. Data and information transformation tool: The large amounts of raw data collected during a manufacturing process are rendered useless, unless the data is gathered and transformed into some useful information which may be used to monitor a system. To understand this better a simple example is taken below. Consider a CNC machine hooked to the Internet as shown in Figure 4. It shows the way data and information are transformed from the machine to the internet. Here the idea is to monitor the health of the tool [life of the tool] fixed in the CNC machine. This technique can also be used to calibrate a machine from the Internet. Fig 1 Evolution of E Manufacturing (Source NACFAM) The contrast between the traditional system and the system with E-Manufacturing is indicated below [3] ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 WCE 2008 Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. Fig 4: Tool Monitoring in a CNC Machine Using Internet. Prediction Tools: Apart from data being gathered, certain tools need to be developed, which can predict or detect the degradation of various parts of the machine, performance loss and trend of failure. Developing a tool which monitors these aspects could set the trend for an advanced diagnostic system. Optimization Tools: As far as E-Manufacturing is concerned data can be accessed from any part of the globe at any time. Hence certain tools need to be developed which can optimize the data and provide easy to read results. For example, these tools should be able to provide the performance of a drill bit for various drilling operation verses time, temperature, tool tip failure with various materials etc. Synchronization Tools: This is an important tool in the E-Manufacturing environment, which can associate various groups such as customer’s suppliers and manufacturers, where first hand information needs to be sent to these groups during emergencies, for example – if tool needs a replacement or tool has worn out then the information is sent from first the manufacturer to the supplier and tool maker where the tool can be assessed for performance. The new connectivity and communications tools will boost productivity, profits, speed to market, and flexibility for those manufactures who are willing to upgrade. Some of the common E-manufacturing tools are SMS, E Mail, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, Fax and Infrared Connectivity. V. E MAINTENANCE Progressive plant executives, maintenance managers, and work planners have always wanted to have information about the condition of equipment assets at their fingertips when they need it. Unfortunately, it typically is scattered among separate information systems. It is difficult to view, compile and synchronize the different information types on the same computer terminal. If one wants to maximize business continuity by increasing device up-time and minimize the time, costs and headaches associated with device administration he must adopt the E-Maintenance strategy. It is a network that integrates and synchronizes the various maintenance and reliability applications to gather and deliver asset information where it is needed, when it is needed. Interconnectivity of the islands of maintenance and reliability information is embodied in E-Maintenance. The EMaintenance network can be developed from a collection of information islands by using a single proprietary system, a custom bridge, or by using an open systems bridge. EMaintenance also removes the need for manual meter readings that is your device administration is virtually reduced to nil. It is estimated that 15- 40% of indirect costs of manufacturing is maintenance related. About 50% are unnecessary corrective maintenance, which costs 10-15 times more than predictive maintenance. Furthermore, 25% of maintenance is preventive, which is 3-5 times more expensive then predictive. An effective E-Manufacturing strategy uses predictive maintenance techniques to forecast equipment wear and predict failure. Apart from this, it also alerts MRO managers to unexpected problems. This allows managers to proactively correct problems, thus maximizing the use of machinery and personnel while minimizing preventive maintenance expenses. Predicting the reliability of plant-floor equipment can be the difference between a few minutes of preventive maintenance and hours or days of downtime for corrective maintenance. Ultimately, predictive maintenance, computerized maintenance management systems or CMMS, and effective utilization of maintenance specialists make E Manufacturing work. VI. E DIAGNOSTICS E-Diagnostics is the reactive and proactive remote diagnosis, maintenance and repair of equipment by service personnel. EDiagnostics offers many businesses the promise of better equipment reliability and performance at a much lower cost. It is the hardened, reliable acquisition of time-stamped, highspeed information from the tool registers and ancillary data points, database retention and management, parsing and analysis. A complete E-Diagnostics solution would include the following: (a) Remote capture, transmission, analysis and dissemination of equipment performance data. (b) Remote takeover of equipment to manipulate equipment settings during and after repair. (c) A trigger for replenishing spare parts. (d) Faster and more effective response to field service engineering requests, bringing the experts remotely to the problem. (e) Reduced equipment and process variation, through better visibility and response to differences in equipment performance among machines. ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 WCE 2008 Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. (f) Preventive response to pending equipment failures through the use of advanced process control (real-time multivariate statistical analysis). (g) Enhanced next-generation tool development through improved awareness of deficiencies in current equipment designs. Traditional E-Diagnostics systems monitor tool performance and provide â€Å"maintenance needed† alerts to service and engineering personnel. Much more can be derived from the rich sensor data generated as wafers pass through process chambers. This step in E-Diagnostics is to employ proven enterprise data mining (EDM) techniques to correlate device yield and performance with the vast amount of tool-level and wafer-level chamber sensor data. With this new approach, yield and process-level issues can be uncovered down to a particular sensor reading on a specific tool process chamber. Once a specific tool issue can be identified to have an impact on process results, specific E-Diagnostics monitors can be targeted to prevent future yield and process excursions, completing a closed loop process learning effort. The steps to be followed to implement the E Diagnostics strategy in an industry are as shown below. maintenance programme. Computerized maintenance management systems optimize the deployment of all maintenance, repair, and operating (MRO) resources, such as people, spare parts, tools and facilities, and allow the creation of a planned maintenance programme for all assets. EProcurement allows the replacement of stock with information and offers direct access to spares at lowest cost. For the successful application of E-Manufacturing there must exist a partnership between the supplier and the customer. The goal is to deploy best practices in e-business processes as quickly and effectively as possible while ensuring a quantifiable return on investment (ROI). The benefits of adopting E business strategy are; (a) Quick installation of software updates with no need for expensive integration projects. (b) One enterprise wide view of the customer, product or process. (c) Global deployment from one instance of the software, making all applications accessible globally via a standard Web browser. (d) Simplified systems and maintenance for IT staff due to the one-vendor approach. e) Streamlined business processes. (f) Better decision-making and business intelligence because of the single-database architecture and preintegrated applications and rapid deployment at lower cost. VIII. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY AND GEARS Every automobile industry has an umpteen number of divisions, each division manufacturing a particular system of the automobile- like the steering system, brake system, engine, suspens ion, chassis and body, interiors, safety division, quality control division, etc. With so many departments working towards the creation of the same end product, a lot of time and money is spent in redesigning and related cases which may arise due to inefficient data transfer or delayed transfer of important information between the departments. Such a problem can be sorted out by implementing the EManufacturing strategy into the industry. The internet can be used to share data and information between various departments and between manufacturers worldwide. Data sharing can be extensively used between the head office and the various branches and service centers of a company which may be located at different locations around the globe. For example, if a component is found defective in one of the branches the information is relayed immediately to the other branches warning them to arrest the production of that component immediately. As a result of this, huge amounts of time, material and money are saved. The internet is a means of communication between production engineers, the manufacturing engineers, and the design engineers. Adopting this new technique can reduce the complexity of the part, without jeopardizing performance. Using CAE tools in the design process may have a profound impact on savings. In many cases, the virtual prototype is a much more accurate representation of what we designed than the physical Fig 5: E Diagnostics VII. E BUSINESS In today’s world it’s the â€Å"Time Factor† that can make or break an industry. Gone are the days of buying different applications from a host of technology vendors and spending countless months and dollars integrating them. Increasingly, the customers are demanding more customized products, faster delivery schedules, and instant access to order status. Results have to be assessed in financial terms, with return on net assets or return on capital employed, the key measure. EBusiness promises a solution to this customer demanding market. Automated scheduling provides a better method of managing production orders and increases the visibility of current and future scheduling activities. Tracking involves the collection, analysis, viewing and reporting of production data. To get the best productivity from the assets deployed, three main areas need to be addressed: Condition based maintenance; computerized maintenance management; EProcurement. Condition-based maintenance predicts the deterioration of assets that allows the planning of maintenance actions more effectively and monitors the effectiveness of the ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 WCE 2008 Proceedings of the World Congress on Engineering 2008 Vol II WCE 2008, July 2 – 4, 2008, London, U. K. prototype. Apart from adopting this strategy in the production line it can also be used in the maintenance program of an automobile. For example, if you only repair your car when it breaks down, you face costly corrective maintenance. A preventive maintenance schedule, based on the manufacturer's recommendations, may prevent breakdowns. Preventive maintenance is possible using E-Diagnostics. When a car is taken in for servicing, it is hooked onto the diagnostic computer which indicates existing problems. Moreover the service centers are constantly hooked up to the internet and are updated on availability of spares, latest trends in servicing and solutions to commonly occurring problems. All this information is made available from their counterparts from around the world. To add to this the entire service history of the vehicle is uploaded to the net so that it is made available to all of the company’s service centers around the globe which will help identify the status of the vehicle wherever and whenever one wants to service it. Gears form an important component in most machines as well as in automobiles. Today’s Customers demand a multitude of gears in a short span of time, without any compromise on quality. The solution to this challenge is E Manufacturing. One can hook up the gear manufacturing machine to the net. It offers fully integrated production control software for estimating, order and job control, job travelers, scheduling, data collection, inventory control, purchasing, work center loading and cost accounting. Various design parameters can be entered by the customer and modifications may also be made until the last minute. Once the system is in place economic and efficient manufacture of gears is imminent. 1. Synchronize Production Processes with Business Processes. . Orchestrate Upstream Flows of Work, Information, and Material. 3. Automate Business Processes & Workflows within the Enterprise 4. Give Control to Managers with Plant Information & Analysis Tools. 5. Integrate the Design Process among All Collaborating Parties. 6. Leverage Bi-directional Down-stream Information. 7. Enable Collaborative Maintenance and Manufacturing Support. X. CONCLUSION This paper discussed cer tain key areas and subsets of the E-Manufacturing strategy which when implemented will yield priceless benefits to an industry that implements it. Further the concept of an E-Factory promises greater increase in productivity and performance, while at the same time decreases production costs. However, for E-Manufacturing to be a success, co-operation between various public and private sector organizations is mandatory. This new thinking paradigm to integrate web-enabled and predictive intelligence for manufacturing systems is becoming a new benchmark strategy for manufacturing companies to compete in the twenty-first century. REFERENCES [1] [2] White paper â€Å"Making sense of E-Manufacturing: A Road map for manufacturers Industry† Rockwell Automation. Exploiting E Manufacturing: Interoperability of Software Systems used by US Manufacturing â€Å" National Coalition for Advanced Manufacturing, 2001, pp 1-13 Manufacturing Engineering Handbook – by Hwaiyu Geng, McGraw Hill Professional 1 edition, March 1, 2004, Koc M, Ni J, Lee J. Introduction of e-manufacturing. Proceeding of the International Conference on Frontiers on Design and Manufacturing, Dalian, China, July 2002. E – Manufacturing Review – Jay Lee – Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing Journal. , May 23 – 2003 Lee J, Ahad A, [email  protected] M. E-manufacturing—its elements and impact. Proceedings of the Annual Institute of Industrial Engineering (IIE) Conference, Advances in Production Session, Dallas, TX, USA, May 21–23, 2001. Lee J, Ni J. Web-enabled e-manufacturing. Proceeding of Sixth International Manufacturing Technology in Hong Kong, December 2001 Lee J, Ni J. E-manufacturing and e-business integration: a case study. Proceeding of the International Manufacturing Leaders Forum (IMLF), Adelaide, Australia, February 8–10, 2002. Lee J, Ni J. Infotronics agent for tether-free prognostics. Proceeding of the AAAI Spring Symposium on Information Refinement and Revision for Decision Making: Modeling for Diagnostics, Prognostics, and Prediction, Stanford University, Palo Alto, CA, March 25–27, 2002. [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] Figure 6 Application of E Manufacturing to Automobile Industry [8] [9] IX. BENEFITS OF E-MANUFACTURING E-Manufacturing is a fundamental change in the strategic value proposition for manufacturers. Its collection of systems, processes, and technologies that support and enable manufacturers to compete in collaboration with others has seven fundamental jobs: ISBN:978-988-17012-3-7 WCE 2008

Christian Theology And Feminist Theology - 1699 Words

If one were to ask ten modern day theologians to define the word â€Å"theology,† it is likely that they would hear ten different answers. Even within the various types of theology, for example, Christian theology, there are a wide spectrum of attitudes and beliefs. Even more so, if one were to compare evangelical theology with feminist theology, the differences would add up quickly. Two modern day theologians, Stanley Grenz and Catherine Keller, well known in their respective fields, have approached their theology from different backgrounds. The most obvious is the difference in gender. However, their theological methodologies, the definition, and nature of their theological goals and their approach to being biblically faithful are vastly different. By careful examination, these two theologians and their specific ideologies in relating to evangelical theology and feminist theology will influence how a person approaches their own theology. Considered a â€Å"prolific theologian,† Stanley Grenz was a leader among evangelical theologians (Warner, 2005, p. 42). Author of a multitude of books on diverse subject matters including eschatology, ethics, Trinity, and homosexuality, Grenz initially defended his Baptist customs (Warner, 2005). However, considered as his greatest contribution, was his ability to bridge the evangelicals from their own world of thought to â€Å"engage the larger scholarly world† (Warner, 2005, p. 43). He was the first to consider postmodern thought, recognizingShow MoreRelatedAnalyzing Black Liberation Theology, Latin American Liberation Theology, and Feminist Theology1371 Words   |  6 PagesLiberation Theology Black Liberation Theology, Latin American Liberation Theology, and Feminist Theology Liberation theology comprises of two main principles: it recognizes the call for liberation from any form of oppression economic, political, and social: second, it says that theology must grow from the basic Christian communities and not from above. Liberation theology examines the theological meaning of human activities, which includes an explanation of the Christian faith out of sufferingRead MoreFeminist Theology1492 Words   |  6 PagesFeminist Theology Feminist theology is based on the idea of not lord but brother. Jesus Christ himself stepped outside of societies norms by befriending the outcasts of society, which included women. 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According to the encyclopedia, it is related to the Greek Religion. In Christianity, the systematic study of the nature of God and Gods relationship with humanity and with the world. Although other religions may be said to have theologies, this is a matter of controversy within, for instance, Judaism , which holds that God is unknowable. This article will therefore confine itself to Christi an theology. The development of theology in ChristendomRead More what is theology Essay995 Words   |  4 Pages What is theology? What does it explain if anything? According to the encyclopedia, it is related to the Greek Religion. In Christianity, the systematic study of the nature of God and Gods relationship with humanity and with the world. Although other religions may be said to have theologies, this is a matter of controversy within, for instance, Judaism , which holds that God is unknowable. This article will therefore confine itself to Christian theology. The development of theology in ChristendomRead MoreEssay on Women and the Trinity1125 Words   |  5 PagesWomen and the Trinity For most of us, faith development is a process. We grow in wisdom and stature and favor with God. As a Christian woman I know that my consciousness about the feminist agenda has evolved in stages also. First, I became aware of the generic language. Words like mankind, brotherhood, and the overused pronoun he was supposed to describe all of humanity. IT was clear that they contained a masculine bias. Little girls grew up hearing those words literally and scalingRead MoreElizabeth Johnson-Revisonist Method of Theology3468 Words   |  14 PagesElizabeth Johnson is perhaps one of the most preeminent Catholic theologians of the new millennium. The fact that she is a woman religious who writes from a feminist perspective adds to her unique and distinguished career. This paper will examine the revisionist method espoused by Elizabeth Johnson, in an effort to understand her approach to Christian feminism. An overview of revisionist methodology will be presented so as to understand the framework in which Johnson works. References to some of Johnson